Theme 2: Conflict and Harmony in Multi-ethnic Societies & Bonding Singapore

Theme 2
Conflict and Harmony in Multi-Ethnic Societies

Chapter 4: Conflict in Multi-ethnic Societies
Case studies of Sri Lanka and Northern Ireland

·       Causes of conflict in Sri Lanka

·       Consequences of conflict in Sri Lanka

·       Causes of conflict in Northern Ireland

·       Consequences of conflict in Northern Ireland

Chapter 5: Bonding Singapore

·       Challenges facing Singapore as multi-ethnic society

·       Solutions to/Methods Singapore uses to ensure racial and religious harmony in Singapore 

Sec 3 SS Chapter 3: Conflict in Multi-Ethnic Countries

Sri Lanka
A) Causes for Conflict in Sri Lanka

Sinhala Only’ Policy British favoured the Tamils ·         Under British rule, only English-educated Tamils in Sri Lanka could enter government service and be promoted. ·         Many Tamils could speak and write in English ·         Tamils took up important jobs in the British Colonial government ·         Sinhalese were disadvantaged – less proficient in English ·         Sinhalese decided to change this. Sinhala only policy ·         When the Sinhalese came to power, government declared Sinhala as the official language in 1956 by Official Language Act  ·         Language test requirement for all Tamils who wanted to work in the Civil Service  ·         Tamils had 3 years to master the language or be sacked or might not be promoted in the civil service. ·         Tamils would not be as good in Sinhala compared to the Sinhalese  ·         Tamils felt this was unfair à more Sinhalese would pass the language test than Tamils  ·         Tamils would lose their jobs à no income à families would suffer à  frustration and anger towards the Sinhalese for creating this situation  ·         Tension increases between races à conflict

No citizenship rights for Indian Tamils ·         Since 1948, Sri Lanka gained independence from the British ·         Ceylon Citizenship Act granted citizenship to people born in Sri Lanka OR whose father and grandfathers were born in Sri Lanka ·         Many Indian Tamils were brought by the British to Sri Lanka ·         Indian Tamils were stateless (did not belong to any country) which meant being denied basic rights such as voting, education, housing, jobs, etc ·         In 1964, India decided to help Indian Tamils and held discussions with Sri Lanka ·         Sri Lanka agreed to allow a certain number of Indian Tamils to return to India and the remaining were to be granted Sri Lanka citizenship ·         Due to outbreak of ethnic violence,  Sri Lanka government did not fully carry out agreement fully ·         As many as 100,000 Indian Tamils remained stateless ·         Indian Tamils à Not given citizenship rights when SL became independent ·         Indian Tamils had contributed to economy of Sri Lanka by working in the tea plantations à tea was a major export for SL àyet the SL government did not reward them with citizenship à Indian Tamils felt insulted à tension increased ·         No citizenship = no free education benefits, public housing rights à quality of life reduced à their families face bleak futureà angry at  Sinhalese ·         No citizenship = no voting rights + stateless à no power to change the SL government à felt neglected à developed anger towards the Sinhaleseà tension increased.

Unfair university admission criteria ·         Before 1970, University admission based solely on merit. ·         Examinations were in English and this enabled English-educated Tamils to score well. ·         More Tamils than Sinhalese were admitted into University. ·         However, Tamils are the minority (18% of population). The unfairness starts… ·         After 1970, University entry criterion made more stringent for Tamils  ·         Tamils had to score higher than Sinhalese on entry tests to make it to local universities  ·         e.g. for the Medicine course, Tamils needed higher mark of 250 as compared to 229 for Sinhalese to enter ·         Fewer Tamils could enter university and take up good paying jobs in the future ·         Many Tamils could only work in lower paying jobs and did not get a university education. ·         Tamil community’s future generations condemned to a bleaker future àdenied a higher education because of discrimination.   ·         No meritocracy à Tamils felt angry towards the Sinhalese because of such unfairness à increased tension between the races.

Resettlement of Sinhalese in Tamil areas ·         Sri Lanka government moved Sinhalese into Tamil-majority areas àAreas belonged to Tamils given to landless Sinhala peasants to grow “padi”/rice ·         Tamils felt that their property taken without permission à found this threatening ·         Sinhalese moved in with their military à caused the Tamils to feel threatened àTamils felt helpless and could not stop Sinhalese action ·         Sinhalese also brought their religious leaders Buddhist Monks à Tamils are Hindu à the presence of Buddhist monks meant that the Sinhalese were also attempting to spread their religion  ·         Tamils felt even more threatened and intimidated à[Raised/increased] tension arose between the 2 races. [ Conflict – escalation of conflict/tension]

B) Consequences for Sri Lanka Conflict

Political Consequences Foreign Intervention by India ·         India intervened in Sri Lankan domestic affairs to solve the Tamil and Sinhalese conflict Intervention 1: India as Mediator ·         Played role of mediator between Sri Lanka and LTTE following the 1983 riots ·         The Indian government wanted to reduce the bloodshed, especially as they pitied the Tamils in Sri Lanka who had migrated there from India. ·         Mediation failed as Tamils and Sinhalese could not agree. Intervention 2: India supplies food and supplies to Sri Lankan Tamils. ·         June 1987, Indian government sent 20 Indian ships to Jaffna to provide food and petrol to Sri Lanka Tamils ( Infringement on Sri Lanka’s territory) ·         Ships turned back ·         Sri Lankan Air Space violated à Indian air force dropped food and medical supplies in Jaffna for the Sri Lankan Tamils ·         India felt sorry for the Sri Lankan Tamils, many of whom were originally from India. ·         In 1987, Sri Lanka signed a Peace Accord with India ( Peacekeeping force ) Details of Accord ·         Ceasefire between Tamil Tigers and Sri Lankan forces ·         Tamil Tigers to surrender their arms to the Indian peacekeeping force ·         Tamil dominated North of SL to be merged with Eastern provinces ·         India was keen to ensure that there was peace in Sri Lanka as Sri Lanka is near to India and any instability in Sri Lanka can affect India’s security. But ·         Oct 1987, Tamil Tigers failed to fully surrender their weapons ·         Indian troops tried to disarm them by force and clashed. ·         Conflict worsened. ·         Indian troops left in March 1990 Impact ·         Sri Lanka government forced to accept Indian peace-keeping troops as India was militarily stronger  ·         Sri Lanka government was embarrassed as its sovereignty was violated – Airdrop and being forced to accept Indian peacekeepers ·         Loss of national pride and international standing as Sri Lanka was seen as weak and unable to stop foreign nations from violating its territorial space ·         Makes it more challenging for the Sri Lanka government to be respectfully treated in its diplomatic relations with other states since India has already disrespected Sri Lanka.  Armed conflict ·         Policies by the Sri Lanka government (mostly Sinhalese) made the Tamils feel discriminated  ·         Tamils voiced their unhappiness peacefully to be treated properly àIgnored ·         Tamil political parties asked for Tamil areas to be considered a Federation(Form their own nation) so that they can have partial self-government à Idea was rejected by SL government  ·         A group which called themselves the Tamil Tigers(LTTE) emerged  ·         LTTE asked for an independent Tamil State (Eelam) as they believed that having their own state was the best option à Idea was also rejected ·         LTTE used violence to obtain their rights  ·         They killed innocent people, attack Sinhalese soldiers, police, government officials and even other Tamils  ·         LTTE started Civil War when they killed 13 Sinhalese soldiers (Trigger event) ·         Many incidents of violence between 1981 to 1984 by both sides ·         In July 1983, 13 Sinhalese troops were killed by the LTTE and the Sinhalese sparked anti-Tamil riots. ( Started a cycle of violence à civil war) Impact ·         Civil war lasted 30 years and ended only in 2009  ·         Many families suffered and more than 60,000 people died   ·         Destroyed infrastructure such as roads and bridges ·         Disrupted normal daily activities and public services ·         Money needed to rebuild and this puts a strain on government finances  ·         Leads to a lower quality of life as Sri Lanka did not develop during this time ·         Armed conflict had a devastating impact on Sri Lanka

Economic Consequence Unemployment ·         Following the 1983 riots in Sri Lanka, there was unemployment ·         Massive unemployment due to riots and work places being burnt or looted ·         Many of the jobs lost were Sinhalese ·         Loss of jobs àLoss of income àUnable to support family àStandard of living drops àPoverty Loss of Investments from other countries ·         Many foreign investors were afraid to invest in Sri Lanka as their property might get damaged and the existing investors fled fearing for their lives and investments.  ·         Sri Lanka economy weakened à Unemployment àEconomic suffering Tourist Decline ·         Following the 1983 riots, tourists were afraid to come to Sri Lanka due to violence and they do not want to be caught in a cross-fire  ·         Steady decline ·         Avoided Sri Lanka completely as they may get killed or injured because of the civil war. ·         Loss of revenue ·         Limited funds to improve public works and economy ·         Tourist decline à Loss of jobs in tourism industry à Fall in earnings à Economic suffering

Social Consequence ·         Tamils fled their homes to escape the fighting between Sri Lankan army and Tamil Tigers. ( Displacement of many civilians) ·         After the 1983 riot, many fled to Tamil Nadu in India. ·         Sinhalese forces decided to drive ALL Tamils out of their towns and villages as it was impossible to differentiate innocent Tamils from the LTTE members ·         Aim to clear Tamil majority areas of Tamil Tigers ·         Sinhalese forces then developed High Security Zones (HSZ) to keep the Tamil Tigers away ·         The Tamil civilians fled from their towns and villages and moved North to escape the fighting between the Tamil Tigers and Sinhalese forces and being killed ·         The Tamil refugees who fled lost most of their possessions and land ·         There was a lack of security and life becomes harsh as they are constantly on the move ·         Many became refugees and lived in deplorable conditions in refugee camps in both India and Sri Lanka.  ·         Diseases spread easily in these dirty conditions  ·         Many died or suffered from illness and malnutrition due to the lack of hygiene and proper food and clean water. ·         Social consequence was devastating as it was a humanitarian disaster

Northern Ireland
C) Causes for Conflict in Northern Ireland

Background of Northern Ireland Historical causes of conflict – Resentment of the Protestants, who are descendants of the English, by the Irish. In the 12th century, England conquered Ireland English Protestant settlers pushed out many Irish Catholic farmers in northern parts of Ireland. The Irish Catholics who chose to stay were given less fertile land. Northern Ireland became dominated by Protestants. Land and power was retained by Protestants when Protestant King William of Orange defeated Catholic King James II in 1690 The Protestants then made sure that they had complete control of Ireland by implementing the Penal Laws which prevented Catholic from buying land, joining the army, receiving a higher education and not being allowed to vote. ( Historical discrimination laws) Then, in 1800, Ireland became part of United Kingdom. However, the hostilities between the Catholics and Protestants continued Northern Ireland is created. By the 1900s, the British lost control of the southern part of Ireland. In 1921, Ireland was divided into two parts : Northern Ireland (predominantly Protestants) & Irish Free State (predominantly Catholics) Both Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State had their own parliament but continued to recognise the English monarchy and laws In 1949, the Irish Free State officially cut ties with Britain and became the Republic of Ireland
Divided Loyalties ·         The Protestants wanted to remain as part of Britain, and they were loyal to Britain as the English are their ancestors ·         The Catholics wanted to break away from Britain and rejoin Northern Ireland instead, as the people in Northern Ireland and Republic Of Ireland are from the same heritage but separated by the English invasion ·         Irish were angry with the English for their harsh treatment of the Irish in the past. ·         Both communities were unable to see a common future for Northern Ireland together ·         Each fear that if the other side gained power, their political beliefs would not be tolerated. ·         Both sides distrusted each another’s political intentions and motives à no common goal on how to move Northern Ireland forward  à led to more tension
Unequal Employment Opportunities ·         The Protestants controlled government jobs and they discriminated against the Catholics by not employing them ·         Many Protestants also owned large businesses and they did not employ Catholics ·         The Catholics felt very discriminated due to the unfair treatment ·         Many became unemployed and poor à suffered due to poor quality of life ·         Made them angry and began to dislike the Protestants more à raise tension	Unequal Allocation of Housing ·         The Protestants controlled the city councils which were responsible for the allocation of houses ·         Protestant families were given homes quickly ·         Catholic families had to wait for a long time before they were given their homes ·         Catholic families were given smaller homes even though they had large families and their houses were made of inferior material ·         Catholics felt like 2nd class citizens in their own country. ·         Catholic families felt discriminated as their basic need (house) was not met à Poor quality of life ·         Sense of unfairness made the Catholics dislike the Protestants more à increasing the tension
Lack of Opportunities for Social Interaction Residential areas The Catholics and the Protestants live in separate neighborhoods Minimal interaction à Little opportunity to form friendships à Lack of understanding of each other When there is misunderstanding between them à Little chance of mediation Separate school system Separate school systems means that Protestant children and Catholic children did not get much chance to interact from a young age Protestant children attended Protestant schools which focus on British sports, history Catholic children attended Catholic schools which focus on Irish sports, heritage Thus from young, they never had a chance to interact à See themselves differently View the other group with suspicion à Leads to a lack of unity in Northern Ireland	Lack of Voting Rights ·         Up till 1969, Catholics were not allowed to vote ·         The Protestants then created voting laws à Only citizens who had homes and businesses could vote à Larger business = More votes ·         Voting laws benefited the Protestants who were wealthier (had homes and business), had more votes à Catholics who were poorer (no homes or business) had few votes ·         Made many Catholics to dislike the Protestants for creating such unfair voting laws ·         Voting system favoured the Protestants ·         The Protestants, with more votes, continued voting for themselves to stay in power ·         Most Catholics could not even vote, and thus always lose to Protestants during voting  ·         Sense of injustice and being trapped by the unfair voting system led the Catholics to hate the Protestants even more

D) Consequences of Northern Ireland Conflict

Political (Positive) Signing of peace agreements between the Catholics and the Protestants Laying down of the arms by the IRA Civil Rights Movements pressured Northern Ireland government to pass anti-discrimination measures (1) Abolished the unfair voting system; (2) Promised to review schemes for allocating houses (3) Power sharing agreements in 1973 and 1988 Catholics today enjoy better treatment by the Protestants as the world started to pay attention to their plight and discrimination faced by them ·         Northern Ireland government and the British government gradually seek ways to treat the Catholics better  ·         Better chance for peace in Northern Ireland

Social (Negative) ·         Social segregation in schools, work and residential areas ·         Never had a chance to interact from young with members of the other community à Difficult to promote understanding and conflict resolution à Create distrust and fear

Economic (Negative) ·         Economic decline ·         Investors and tourists stayed away because of the unrest and the civil war ·         Businesses declined à fewer jobs à unemployment ·         No income or low incomes à Standard of living falls for both Catholics and Protestants ·         Deepens hatred both parties have for each other à continue to blame each other for slow economic progress

Bonding Singapore
A) Challenges facing Singapore as a multi-ethnic state

Factor 1: One challenge is how to manage how the different races feel[Think of one another] towards one another . This becomes a threat to peace when these perceptions are negative.  Why is it difficult to manage how different races feel towards one another? 1.                   Multi-ethnic states à easy for misperceptions and misunderstandings to arise between different races à race is a sensitive matter à race tells us about who we are à if a race feels that it is threatened or insulted by another community, it will become defensive à this is a challenge to manage as it can turn one community against another à  2.                   A perceived insult to one’s race is an insult to one’s family and self as well, including one’s ancestors and descendants. (Difficult to correct the perception once a person feels his/her race has been treated poorly à once the sense that one’s race has been insulted, it is hard to dismiss or remove the feel of unhappiness.) Note well: One’s race cannot be changed à it is a permanent part of one’s identity. 3.                   Different races have cultural differences à Races can misunderstand the intentions of another race à  this can lead to tension. 4.                   Misperceptions that one race is ill-treated/discriminated by another can create suspicion and unhappiness between the races à Spark violence and hatred. 5.                   For example: In the 1960s, PAP’s resettlement of the housing areas affected all races but Malays believed it was targeting them à Mistrust and hostility between the Malays and Chinese arose. 6.                   Hence, how one race perceives its treatment by another can affect the relationship and affect social cohesion à Hence, this is why the management of the perception between races in a multi-ethnic state is challenging.
Factor 2: Why is it difficult to manage how different religions feel towards one another? Multi-ethnic states  à easy for misperceptions/misunderstandings  to arise between different religions Religion is sensitive and holy to its believers. It is difficult for the government to manage these sensitivities once a religion feels that it has been insulted by another community or by the government. Some religions feel that their welfare is not looked after by the government. Hence it is challenging for the government to make sure that all religions feel cared for. If an insult to a religion is perceived OR a religion feels that it is under threat à Tension will increase. For example in 1950s Singapore: Maria Hertogh riots, Singapore Muslims believed that the British Government had disregarded Muslim feelings The belief was that the British sided with Maria’s Dutch parents in giving custody of Maria to them. Muslims believed that the British were anti-Muslim and so rioting and violence occurred.	Factor 3: Why are external forces a challenge to a multi-ethnic state? 1.       Transnational Terrorism is the external threat to multi-ethnic states. 2.       Transnational terrorism is hard to manage as it comes from outside of the country and can influence the members of the same religion via the internet which is hard to manage.   3.       Transnational Terrorists can misuse religion to influence those of the same religion by twisting religious facts. 4.       Terrorist acts can also divide the people  5.       Social cohesion can be damaged if citizens in a multi-ethnic state view all the members of that particular community from which the Transnational Terrorists come from as also being terrorists by association.  6.       The government cannot fully control such wrong perceptions. 7.       For example in Singapore, 43 Malay Muslim Singaporeans were arrested in connection with the Jemaah Islamiyah terrorist group à planned to bomb parts of Singapore. 8.       Other races and religions in Singapore may become distrustful of the Malay-Muslim community and this can negatively affect Singapore’s national unity. 9.       The challenge was to make the other communities feel safe in the presence of Malay Muslims and make clear that 43 deviant individuals is not indicative of the entire Muslim community being deviant.
Weighing paragraph: Greatest challenge à the factor that cannot be controlled easily by the Singapore government = influence of external forces [Internet cannot be controlled easily and terrorist groups can continue to use it to twist religious teachings in their favour] Hence, external forces is the greatest challenge.

B) Ways to maintain harmony in a multi-ethnic state

Factor 1: Build/Developing a National Identity (Sense of belonging to Singapore) Sub-factor A: Multi-racialism policy [Treating all races and religions equally and fairly] - Equality among races - No special rights for any race or religion à disallowed by law àEqual opportunities to succeed  So What? - Every Singaporean feels valued by nation & Nobody feels discriminated - No single race or religion has special rights  - No feeling of hatred against the race or religion by other communities for having special rights. - People feel united à More cohesive as a nation

Sub-factor B: Common Practices -  Things Singaporeans do common acts of loyalty together. E.g. Sing the National Anthem, Take the Pledge, attend flag raising, celebrate National Day   - Develop patriotism [Love for one’s country] in citizens à common practices can only be carried out by citizens of the country and so this increases the sense of belonging to the nation à Differentiates Singaporeans from foreigners -  Feel united as one country = More cohesive as a nation

Sub-factor C: Bilingualism policy (Started in 1966) -  Learn both English(EL) and Mother Tongue(MT) -  MT to transmit values and keep roots -  EL is a common language to allow races to communicate à Greater understanding/unity amongst the races à Sense of closeness and friendship= greater cohesion -  EL not native/neutral language [Not a language that belongs to a particular race] to any race à No race has an advantage over the other races à no sense of discrimination à There is a sense of cohesion.

Factor 2: Safeguarding = protect the interests of the minority groups. Sub factor A: Minority representation policy [ policy = government decision] -          Gives minorities a say in government + feel concerns are voiced and heard. -          Less likely to be feel marginalised[discriminated] à Remain loyal to nation à Greater unit Example 1: Presidential Council of Minority Rights  - Made up of people from minorities - Ensures no race or religion is disadvantaged by new laws passed in parliament.[ any new law must be first approved by the PCMR that the law does not discriminate against any race of religion]   - Minorities will know their rights are protected à Hence Minorities will not be harmed or discriminated against by any laws created à Minorities will not feel any ill-will against the majority à harmony between the races/religions is guaranteed. Example 2: Group  Representation Constituency (GRC) -At least one candidate in each GRC contesting in General Election must be from a minority GRC ensures/Guarantees minorities are represented in government à since all political parties are required to have at least 1 minority candidate in their GRC slate of candidates during General Elections. -Minorities do not feel left out à Minorities will feel wanted [Minorities are represented in government decisions making] and thus there is à Minorities feel they have a stake in Singapore à unity.

Sub factor B: Self-help groups[ by race] 1.       Help less fortunate in own communities [by race] financially and in education. 2.       Example: SINDA, CDAC and MENDAKI 3.       Financial aid and free tuition for needy families. 4.       Helps Singaporeans from all communities compete with one another on an equal footing 5.       Education via CDAC, MENDAKI and SINDA à helps pupils to improve academically Young people from the different races will not feel left behind à [The rich-poor gap in the country is kept small à if the gap is wide, there will be jealousy and anger directed at the richer citizens in the country à this leads to potential instability e.g. civil wars and disorder 6.       When poorer Singaporeans are assisted, they move up the economic ladder à less likely for unhappiness to grow since the number of poor in Singapore is minimised àSingaporeans will feel a greater sense of unity in Singapore as everyone is doing well. All races improve together and no races are left behind since the poor in every race is helped in levelling up.

Sub factor A: Events and programmes organised by grassroots organisations ( Residents’ Committees and Citizen Consultative committees CCCs) -          Grassroots organisations e.g. People’s Association/Community Centres à Organise wide range of programmes for Singaporeans of all races and religions. E.g. Dancing class, yoga, cooking -          Platform for different races to mingle -          Develop understanding of each other’s cultures -          Mutual respect à trust and friendships develop -          Harmony between communities Another example: Home stay opportunity between people of different races and religions à helps people of different races appreciate each other’s lifestyle and cultural differences = greater harmony and unity in Singapore.

Sub factor B: Opportunities offered by educational institutions (schools) -          Government schools open to all races and religions -          Pupils of different races interact in school à Develop teamwork, understanding and appreciation of other races à promote close bonds [ Friendships formed can last for life àimproves inter-racial harmony even in adulthood] -          Opportunity for friendship and mutual respect to be cultivated between different races. -          Pupils grow up knowing friends from other races. -          Social bonds are fostered are young à greater cohesion between the communities.

Sub factor C: Common living space provided by the public housing -          1989, ethnic(racial) integration(interconnectedness) programme -          Limits the proportion of races in a block of flats. -          Prevents certain housing estates to become ethnic enclaves (areas where only 1 race lives).   -          Ensure opportunities for people from different ethnic groups to interact -          Races will develop better understanding of each other by living side by side à greater harmony and unity in Singapore

Sub factor D: Activities conducted by inter-racial confidence circles (IRCCs) and Harmony Circles (HCs) ( Circle = grouping) -          IRCCs organise visits to places of worship e.g Churches, Temples. -          Gives opportunities for Singaporeans to appreciate different races and religions -          Develop strong bonds and respect -          HCs organise bonding activities to build confidence and friendship among people of different races at work(at the workplaces) = greater national unity

Sub factor E: Shared experience through National Service -          All able-bodied Singaporeans men of all races serve in defence of nation (Common goal) -          Common goal à bonds everyone   -          Develops loyalty to the nation à enduring friendships amongst the men from different racesà greater national unity.

Factor 3: Developing common space - Creating platform for people come together - Common space = opportunities and places for people of different races and religions to interact - Outcome = Understanding amongst the different races/religions is deepened.